Book & Author
Dr Soad Maher: Al Azhar — Monument and Culture
By Dr Ahmed S. Khan
Chicago, IL
The Universities of Zaytouna (established 737 AD in Tunis, Tunisia) and Al Quaraouiyine (established 859 AD by Fatima al-Fihri in Fez, Morocco) are the two of the oldest existing universities of the world. The third oldest university is the Al Azhar University (established in 970 AD) located in Cairo, Egypt. Al Azhar is regarded as the most prestigious university of the Islamic world. Originally founded as a center of Islamic studies focusing on Qur’an, Islamic law, logic, rhetoric and grammar — the university during the last eleven centuries — has evolved into a modern seat of learning and teaching with 80 faculties, 12 branches, 15,000 teaching staff and over 500,000 students who include 15,000+ international students from five continents.
According to Biography of Al Azhar posted at the university website, Al Azhar is an Arabic word derived from the written word Zahra, which means blossom. So, Al Azhar means each white, bright and blooming color, it also means the moon. Over the past 11 centuries Al Azhar has produced a long list of scholars; some notable ones include: Al-Hassan Bin Al-Haitham (d. 1039 AD), the prominent optics scholar and teacher at Al Azhar;Muhammad Bin Yunus Almasry (d. 1009), the inventor of trigonometry and teacher at Al Azhar; Grand Shikeh of Al Azhar, Al-Attar, the prominent scholar of Astronomy, Mathematics, and Geography; and, Grand Shikeh of Al Azhar Al-Damanhury, the prominent scholar of Medicine, Anatomy, and usul-ul-fiqh (principles of Islamic jurisprudence).
Al Azhar — Monument and Culture (2E) by Dr Soad Maher is a book published in Studies in Islam series on the occasion of the thousandth anniversary of Al Azhar. The book has been translated from Arabic into English by Shaaban Abdel Aziz Ann and revised by Dr Ahmad Hamel Metwalli. The book has been published under the auspices of the supreme council for Islamic affairs, Egypt.
Dr Soad Maher narrates the history of Al Azhar in sixteen chapters: 1. The Establishment of The Mosque and its Fame, 2. The System of Study at Al Azhar and The Sources of its Finance, 3. Syllabus, Books and Professors, 4. Al Azhar's Role in Social Waved Political Life, 5. Administration of Al Azhar, 6. The Rectors of Al Azhar, 7. The Age of Reform and Development, 8. Al Azhar from the Architectural and Archaeological Point of View, 9. Al Azhar in The Ayyubi Era, 10. Al Azhar at The Time of The Mamelukes, 11. Al Azhar in The Ottoman Era, 12. The Porticoes of Al Azhar, 13. The Lanes and Lavatories of Al Azhar, 14. The Niches of Al Azhar, 15. The Nave and Minarets of Al Azhar, and 16. The Doors of Al Azhar.
In the introduction, Ibrahhn El-Dessouky, observes: “In The Name of God, The Most Beneficent, The Most Merciful; Praise be to God of the Universe, and peace and prayers be upon the honorable prophet Muhammad [SAW] and all his people and companions. This book is issued on one of the dearest occasions, and in a precious commemoration of the Thousandth Anniversary of Al Azhar…Al Azhar is aware of its responsibility since its very beginning. It has to secure the creed, protect the sacred things, observe God's ordinance and maintain the Islamic Culture with all its sense…Its role was not limited to research to be published, or an opinion to be declared, but it also cooperated in defending the country and recurring its dignity against the invaders and usurpers.”
Describing the establishment of the mosque and its fame, the author observes: “Gawhar completed the foundation of Cairo one year after the Fatimid invasion of Egypt. Gawhar's first act, as recorded in Al Maqrisi's book, was the establishment of Al Azhar Mosque. Work on it began on a Sunday of Gomada Al Oula, 359 AH. On its completion two years later, it was opened for prayers in Ramadan 361 AH —June — July 972 AD. Al Azhar is regarded as the first artistic architectural work set up by the Fatimids in Egypt, and it still stands to the present day. The mosque still preserves some Kufi inscriptions and writings and Persian arches that characterized Fatimid architecture. Most of its present parts, however, date back to later periods. Al Azhar has maintained its great fame in the Muslim world. It was the lighthouse of knowledge and the meeting place of scholars …”
Reflecting on the evolution of Al Azhar and its intellectual and cultural leadership, the author states: “The scientific and literary movement in Muslim Egypt reached the zenith of progress and flourishing during the last years of the eighth century and the first years of the ninth. The ninth century, in particular, abounded in leading professors of various sciences and arts. Al Azhar, together with the other schools, took part in preparing the elements of that movement and in bringing up a great number of its agents. Reports of the time indicate that Al Azhar maintained its prestige. The largeness of its seminars and porticoes, the variety of its studies, and the facilities that students found in study, and sometimes in residing, had all contributed to that. Al Azhar has become the Mecca of scholars and students from all parts of the Muslim world since the last years of the seventh century when the institutes of Baghdad and Cordova ceased to function. Since the eighth century AH, Al Azhar has assumed the intellectual and cultural leaderships in Egypt and the Muslim world.”
Describing the era of Mamelukes, the author notes: “Under the Mamelukes, Al Azhar enjoyed a special care. Its leading scholars had much influence. They occupied the supreme legal posts. The positions of orientation and guidance were their privilege. That influence had affected sometimes the high policy of the state and the throne. That period was, in fact, the golden age of knowledge. In the late ninth century, the literary movement in Muslim Egypt began to disintegrate, due to the disintegration of the Egyptian state and society. Mamelukes began to suffer from old age. Egyptian society began to collapse and break down. Egyptian institutes and schools were in a bad way and their resources were diminished. Schools lost much of the care of Sultans and princes. Al Azhar had its share of neglect and stagnation.”
Expounding on the era of Ottoman rule, the author observes: “Egypt lost its independence and fell under Ottoman rules in 921 AH (1517 AD)…Muslim civilization had flourished, as a result of the development of science and art, during the rule of the Mameluks, which had continued for three centuries. Then the Ottoman invasion put out the torch of that civilization during the following three centuries. Al Azhar was also affected by the state of collapse and disintegration that characterized the intellectual movement in general at that time. Many subjects which used to be accorded great importance in Al Azhar's seminars began to disappear. Mathematics was not taught in the late twelfth century of the Hegira…Throughout that period, Al Azhar undertook the greatest mission it had ever had…Al Azhar became the last stronghold of the subjects of religion and language. In particular, it became a stronghold of the Arabic language…During the Turkish era, Egypt was the resort of students of Islamic subjects and Arabic, who came from all parts of the Arab and Muslim worlds thanks to Al Azhar which preserved the Muslim heritage for these centuries, until the Turkish came to an end. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, Egypt has begun a new stage in its life, full of light and hope.”
Describing the system of study at Al Azhar, the author states: “The system of study at Al Azhar was set up according to the same old pattern that had been prevailing in Egypt and all Muslim capitals at the time, viz., the system of seminars and private lessons. The system of seminars in Egypt had become common since the second century of the Hegira…The professor sat down to give his lessons in the form of a seminar. Seminars were organized according to the subjects that were taught. The professor of jurisprudence, Tradition, Interpretation, Grammar, Rhetoric or Logic sat in the assigned place, in the porticoes or halls of the mosque. Before him sat students and listeners, discussing those subjects. That system had become an established one during successive ages and resulted in excellent academic studies, in the heyday of Al Azhar in the Middle Ages. Simple though that method was, it had many of the advantages of academic study, as it gathered professors and students in an atmosphere of friendliness and offered them the chance for free discussion…The first lesson given at Al Azhar was in 635 AH (975 AD).”
Reflecting on the finances of Al Azhar, the author observes: “Al Azhar, both as a mosque and as an institute, depended financially on public and private wakfs. Under the Fatimids wakfs were under the control of the Chief Judge and had a special Department. That financial source grew later, under the Mamelukes, and became Al Azhar's main source…The system of gifts adopted during the Fatimid era continued to be applied up to recent times. Al Azhar used to offer its professors and students a daily or monthly quantity of bread. Today bread has been replaced by money. Public and private donations continued to grow. The Wakfs of Sultans, princes and distinguished persons enriched Al Azhar…Those wakfs have continued to grow steadily, and today Al Azhar is very rich due to them. They help it to fulfil its religious and cultural mission. The Rector of Al Azhar used to supervise these wakfs. In recent years, the Ministry of Wakfs — formerly the Department of Wakfs — has been in charge of them. The Department of Wakfs dated back to the time of the Umayyad Caliph Hesham Ibn Abdel Mal ek, in 118 AH, i.e., over 240 years before Al Azhar was established.”
Describing the educational system at Al Azhar in the Middle Ages, the author states: “1. - There was a senior professor for every subject. 2. — The student could pass in a certain subject and fail in another in which he could be examined later, or have the examination put off on a later date. Thus, he could be a graduate and a lecturer in a certain and a student in another. 3. — Certificates were granted by professors, and they were called "Ijaza". If a student found himself capable of teaching and Fatwa (answering questions in jurisprudence), he asked his sheikh to sanction his doing so by granting him an `Ijaza'. This is a copy of one of these certificates granted to a student in the eighth century AH fourteenth century AD: "I appeal to God Almighty and ask Him to help me to make the right choice and to guard me both from negligence and from going to extremes. I beseech His forgiveness for sins committed openly or in secrecy. I state here that I have examined Mr So and So, may Allah guide him to righteousness, in various religious subjects, and that I have found his standard of knowledge satisfactory. He depends on reason as well as on reliable sources and traditions, wide reading and an ability to find solutions for problems and ways out of dilemmas especially in the jurisprudence of our sect. In Arabic and Interpretation, he has become an authority. I have granted him this certificate that he would, if he wished, teach the Shafei sect knowledge to his students. He can answer enquiries and make ‘Fatwas' confidently, for he has got genius, perception and a sharp critical sense. May Allah help us to benefit from what we have learnt and grant us His favor, which is what we always seek." 4. — The student was absolutely free to choose both the subject and the professor. He was also free to attend or to abstain from the courses. 5. — Quite often, a professor concentrated on reading a particular book. Before giving his lesson, the professor appealed to God, asking for His help. He then began his lesson. "In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful", thanked God and paid homage to His Prophet [SAW]. After that he drew the students' attention to the reference books he had consulted and attributed each opinion, objection or answer to its author. There was a strong spiritual tie between professor and student.”
Reflecting on the number of students and budget of Al Azhar during 1940s and 1950s, the author notes: “In 1945-46 the number of students at Al Azhar amounted to 14,714. The figures of 1958 indicate that the number of students then reached nearly 40 thousand, divided as follows: students Primary and secondary sections 27,689 Institute of Muslim Missions 1,326 Free institutes 4,522 Faculty of Muslim Law (Shari'a) 1,398 Faculty of Theology (Usul El din) 1,140 Faculty of Arabic Language 3, 007 [and] Institute of Qur’anic Recitings 663. The budget of Al Azhar amounted to L.E. 695.780 in 1944-45, then to L.E. 1,537,000 in 1953-54, and to L.E. 2,125,100 in 1958-59.”
Describing the library collection of Al Azhar, the author observes: “…Al Azhar has a library which contains valuable books, both manuscripts and printed works. Previously, the library had been a bookstore. The library was founded in 1297 AH (1879 AD). At that time, it contain[ed] 7,710 volumes. At the beginning of this century the number of its volumes amounted to 36,642 among which were 10,932 manuscripts. Also, each portico at Al Azhar had its own library. These libraries contained 30,000 volumes, which were later added to Al Azhar library, thus raising the number of its volumes to 66,642.”
Expounding on Al Azhar’s role in social and political life, the author notes: “During the Fatimid era, Al Azhar was the center of many formal activities, in addition to its academic character, which became well-established in the course of time, and to its being the place where Friday and other formal prayers were held...Al Azhar was also the center of the formal celebration of the Prophet's Birthday. On the 12th of Rabie Al Awwal, in the afternoon, the Judge together with witnesses, used to ride to Al Azhar, accompanied by those charged with distributing pastry and sweets prepared at the Caliph's Palace among such people as the Chief Judge, the Chief Preacher, the Readers of the Prophet's Biography and Preachers.”
Reflecting on the administration of Al Azhar, the author states: “The Management of the affairs of Al Azhar followed the same pattern as the management of the affairs of the mosque. The ruler of the country was often responsible for this management either directly or indirectly: Caliphs, or the princes and ministers they chose were responsible for the repairs, the management and expenditure of Al Azhar. Matters concerning prayers were the responsibility of the Khatib (preacher) and a number of Imams and muazzins. In fact, Khatib was the religious chief. He undertook preaching at common prayers and formal religious ceremonies attended by the Caliph or his representative. The Khatib administered the religious affairs of the mosque in general. The Rector is the head of Al Azhar who directs its religious and administrative affairs. The system of rectorship is part of the changes that the Turks brought about in the chief religious posts.”
Describing the age of reform and development, the author observes: “The great Muslim reformer El Sayyed Gamal El Din Al-Afghani came to Egypt in 1871 AD; he began to hold his famous seminars, in which he dealt with the subjects of jurisprudence, philosophy and logic in a modern, original way. A number of the best professors and students of Al Azhar gathered around him. Those seminars were an intellectual and a social event, which fed the new spirit that had begun to inspire the Islamic intellectual movement. It is at this particular period that the first result of this development at Al Azhar began to appear, and it began to undergo some reform. The first law organizing Al Azhar was issued in 1288 AH, i.e., 1872 AD, when Sheikh Muhammad Al Mandy Al Abbasy was Rector…At the end of the 19th century, the government began to interfere in the reform of education at Al Azhar. The syllabus was no longer confined to religious subjects, other subjects were added to it by a law that was issued in 1314 A.H…In 1961 AD the law No. 103 concerning the organization of Al Azhar was issued…This law entrusted Al Azhar with supervising the 'Societies for the Preservation of the Glorious Qur’an’ and regarded their pupils the first cell in the formation of Al Azhar and its institutes. New faculties have been established such as those of Medicine, Agriculture, Engineering and Commerce. In this way, Al Azhar has combined secular and religious subjects.”
In Al Azhar — Monument and Culture, Dr Soad Maher has eloquently chronicled the history of Al Azhar — evolution form a Mosque to a Modern University — spanned over the past eleven centuries. It is a must read for general readers, and all students and teachers of history and Islamic studies.
(Dr Ahmed S. Khan - dr.a.s.khan@ieee.org - is a Fulbrght Speciast Scholar - 2017-2022)
