Book & Author
Yasin Istanbuli: Diplomacy and Diplomatic Practice in the Early Islamic Era
By Dr Ahmed S. Khan
Chicago, IL
“The basic rule that guides relations between Muslims and other people according to the Islamic concept is `salam', i.e., peace. It is the term for greetings used by Muslims, and the salutation by which all the letters addressed by the Prophet (PBUH) to the leaders of other nations began. The teachings of the Qur’an direct Muslims to approach other people in a friendly manner, and commend them to 'call unto the way of God with wisdom and fair exhortation, and (to) reason with them in the better way.'” - Dr Yasin Istanbuli
Diplomacy and Diplomatic Practice in the Early Islamic Era by Yasin Istanbuli chronicles the nature and forms of diplomacy practiced in the early days of Islam. Dr Yasin Istanbuli a veteran diplomat — has been associated with Jordan's Foreign Service since 1962. He has served as head of the Mission in Algeria, Iran as well as in several Central European republics. His last appointment was as ambassador to Pakistan.
A scholar as well as a diplomat, Dr Istanbuli read for his doctorate from Bucharest. His academic background — in international relations and history— coupled with his experience as a diplomat has given him a unique perspective into the conduct of foreign relations. Dr Istanbuli believes that diplomacy as it was conducted during the early days of Islam — with its emphasis on universality, peaceful relations, and equality of nations and peoples — has left a lasting impact on international relations, as practiced today. The book has an exquisite cover that shows an artist's rendition of the Haram-al-Nabawwi in Medina circa 1582.
The book has five parts: Part-I “Introduction to Diplomacy and its Application in the Pre-Islamic State,” reflects on the historical background and the beginning of the Islamic Era; Part-II “Establishment of the Islamic State” covers establishment of the Islamic state, diplomatic and military encounters and peaceful settlement of disputes; Part-III “The Orthodox Caliphate,” presents the four Orthodox Caliphs, Muslim envoys and peaceful settlements of disputes; Part-IV “The Umayyad and Abbaside Caliphates,” reflects on the Umayyad and Abbaside Caliphates, and their relations with other states, and legislation of international law and rules of diplomatic relations; and Part-V “Characteristics of Islamic Diplomacy,” presents the concept of Islamic diplomacy, and application of diplomacy and diplomatic institutions, auxiliary means of diplomacy, and manifestations of diplomatic conduct .
Reflecting on the current state of affairs, the author observes that in present diplomatic practice, the Anglo-Saxon traits are being challenged frequently. The evolution of the United Nations with more than 180 member states may allow the majority to have its say, and in the struggle among powers the stronger may prevail, but in the confrontation among civilizations, interaction could be the only solution. The author notes that: (i) present diplomatic practice and the manner of conducting international relations are apparently the product of modern Western values and culture, (ii) the expression ‘diplomacy' is a derivation from the Latin family of languages, is no more than two hundred years old, (iii) all other diplomatic terms are mainly Latin, frequently French, and occasionally English, (iv) formalities and protocols relating to diplomatic conduct are a reflection of Western civilization and its hegemony over other cultures and civilizations, (v) the United Nations, as representative of organized relations among other nations, gives exceptional status to the Western presence and influence, (vi) the rules of the United Nations Charter, its procedures, resolutions and conventions suffice it to indicate that its main organ, which has executive power, consecrates this advantage, (vii) among the five permanent members of the Security Council who have the exceptional right of veto, four belong to The West, (viii) Ten seats out of the total membership of the Council are reserved for Western countries, while five seats are supposed to represent more than 75 percent of the world's population, (ix) among the six official languages of the United Nations, three are considered the working languages, namely, English, French and Spanish, and (x) the Western influence over the machinery of international relations has been accentuated by the recent developments which are evolving into a unipolar New World Order.
Discussing the format and methodology of the book, the author observes: “Bearing in mind that the Arab civilization has contributed to the evolution of modern civilizations, one wonders how deep and how vast this contribution was in the context of the present system of international relations, particularly in the conduct of these relations. This book is a modest endeavor to explore this question. Studying the conduct of diplomacy in early Arab history that extends from the seventh up to the ninth century, a period that begins with the start of the Islamic era and ends with the realization of the Arab golden age, presumes the tracking of one particular aspect of Arab history through that period. To relate the modern concept of diplomacy to the past history of the Arabs, there seem to be two prerequisites. The first is to go into a brief historical background to the period that is under study, and the second is to present a basic interpretation of the modern concept of diplomacy; then to apply the dimensions and measures of the modern concept of diplomacy to the events and manifestations of that period that fall within these standards.”
Expounding on the establishment of the Islamic state, the author states: “The arrival of the Prophet (PBUH) at Medina in AD 622, marked the first step towards the establishment of an Islamic state. Considering that Medina was still inhabited by non-Muslims, atheist Arabs, and Jews, the Prophet (PBUH) in his first legislative act drew the lines, in a convention, that would regulate relations between the different factions of the citizens of Medina. In the first part of his ten years of leadership in Medina, Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) laid down the foundation of a city-state that would grow within a few years to encompass the whole Arabian Peninsula. He started with the construction of a mosque that would serve as a school, a center for consultations and information, a court for receiving envoys and delegations, as well as a place for worship and prayers. He constructed a marketplace for the Muslims to counter that of the Jews. He then directed his efforts to building a Muslim army. In the latter part of his stay in Medina he assigned his governors and representatives to different parts of Arabia. Laying down the basis for the subsequent rules guiding relations of the Islamic state with other countries, Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) set good examples in his diplomatic correspondence with foreign royalty, in the dispatch of envoys to neighboring districts, in the establishment of new rules, or the implementation of old ones. These related to the laws of peace and war, and the modalities and contents of the agreements that he concluded with the opposing parties. He was thus paving new roads and giving a new meaning to the concept of international diplomacy. During the succeeding periods of the four Orthodox Caliphs and the Umayyad rule (AD 631-750), the Islamic state witnessed an era of expansion that brought it into direct contact and interaction with the Byzantine, the Persian and the Chinese Empires and peoples. The experience and sophistication of these civilizations enriched Islamic culture and concept. It was during the Abbaside period (AD 750-900) that the Islamic state, reaching its peak in political influence, cultural maturity and economic prosperity, represented the universal state.”
Reflecting on the peaceful settlement of disputes, the author notes: “The Islamic State, under the administration of the Prophet (PBUH), employed all diplomatic means known at present for the settlement of disputes. Negotiations, conciliation, mediation, good offices and arbitration, were instruments known and used by the Islamic State from an early date. The Al-Hudeibiyah Peace Treaty was one example of the outcome of intensive negotiations…Arbitration was a method widely practiced among the Arabs long before Islam. The Qur’an recognized this tradition and made it obligatory in case of a conflict between two Muslim communities or states. 'And if two parties of believers fall to fighting then make peace between them.’”
Discussing the era of the four orthodox caliphs, the author refers to the conquest of Jerusalem: “… Ali bin Abi Taleb (RA) suggested that the Caliph proceed to Jerusalem so that they would attain the target without bloodshed. He warned against the possibility of the arrival of support to the besieged city if the Muslims choose to refuse the offer and to wait for its surrender. Omer (RA) accepted the advice of Ali (RA) and headed for Jerusalem. ‘The Caliph travelled with a single attendant, without escort and without ceremony, and arrived at Jabia, where he was met by a deputation from Jerusalem.’ When Omer (RA) entered Jerusalem and met the Bishop Sophronius in his modest clothes, the Greek historian, Theophanes, claims that the Bishop exclaimed 'Truly, this is the abomination of desolation spoken of in Daniel the Prophet as standing in the Holy Place.’ The fact that the Caliph himself came to conclude the agreement of peaceful entry into Jerusalem, in response to the request of its Bishop, is a unique case in the annals of Islamic conquests. Much more so, considering that the besieged city was without enough military force after the escape of Artabin to Egypt, and that the siege took place after the decisive defeat of the Byzantine armies. The people of Jerusalem might have feared that their concession to the Arab commanders would lead to acts of reprisal from those who were still living in a condition of war. On the Arab side, in spite of their confidence in the imminent surrender of the city, they were proving that they would not forgo any attempt at peace. At the same time, they were expressing their conviction that Jerusalem, the city ‘of the farthest mosque, whose precincts God did bless' had a sacred place in their faith. Furthermore, they indicated that they were fighting the military foreign power in the Arab territories, and felt no antagonism against the inhabitants of the city.”
Elaborating further about diplomacy, the author notes: “During the period of the Orthodox Caliphate, precedents of diplomatic conduct set the benchmark for the concept of Islamic diplomacy. Besides the model of diplomatic envoys, correspondence, negotiations and conclusion of treaties, other instruments of diplomatic practice had been explored and established. The expediency of peaceful settlements of disputes arbitration had been manifested. Until the rule of the fourth Caliph, Ali bin Abi-Taleb (AH 35-40 — AD 656-661), the conduct of relations was between the Muslims world (Dar al-Islam) and the non-Muslims nations (Dar al-Harb). During the six years of the Caliphate of Ali (RA) a new phenomenon appeared which concerned relations between two Muslim communities. The Qur’anic provisions stipulated that the Muslim community is one Ummah, and that any act which could lead to the division of the Muslim Ummah is an infringement upon this principle.”
Discussing the accomplishments of Harun Al-Rashid, the author observes: “Harun Al-Rashid the fifth Abbaside Caliph ascended to the seat of the Caliphate at the age of twenty-three and reigned for twenty-three years from AH 170 to 193 (AD 786-809). When he died at the age of forty-six, he left a glorious image of the Islamic State and society, owing partly to his great character and partly to the era which he represented. It is history and legend together which place Baghdad in the most brilliant period during his Caliphate. Though less than fifty years old, Baghdad had by that time grown to become a world center of prodigious wealth and international significance. Its splendor kept pace with the prosperity of the empire of which it was the capital. It was then that Baghdad became a city with no peers throughout the whole world. The munificence of Harun and his successors attracted to the capital, poets, wits, musicians and others who could amuse and entertain. The luxurious scale of living made this period popular in history and in fiction but what has rendered this age especially illustrious in world annals is the fact that it witnessed the most momentous intellectual awakening in the history of Islam and one of the most significant in the whole history of thought and culture.”
Expounding further on the achievements of Harun Al-Rashid, the author notes: “It was in Harun's reign that the four schools of jurisprudence of the Sunni sect were established. He enlarged the department founded by his grandfather Al-Mansur for the translation of scientific work into Arabic and increased its staff. Baghdad, as a shipping center, was in an advantageous position that made all parts of the world accessible to it. Into its bazaars came porcelain, silk, and musk from China; spices, minerals, and dyes from India; rubies, fabrics, and slaves from Central Asia; honey, wax, and furs from Scandinavia; ivory, gold dust, and slaves from Africa. From Baghdad and other export centers, Arab merchants shipped fabrics, jewelry, metal mirrors, glass beads, spices, and other items of merchandise to the Far East, Europe and Africa. The adventures of Sinbad the Sailor, which form one of the best-known tales in the stories of The Thousand and One Nights, have long been recognized as based upon actual reports of voyages made by Muslim merchants. The tales of A Thousand and One Nights themselves draw a fanciful image of this age, where the name of Harun Al-Rashid is frequently mentioned. The palaces of Baghdad were symbolic representations of the age. The buildings, made of marble, were usually several stories high, lavishly gilded and decorated. The imperial Kasr (palace) was resplendent with inlaid jewels, and the halls bore distinctive names according to their ornamentation.”
Reflecting on the Arab-China diplomatic interaction during the days of Orthodox caliphs, the author states: “During the rule of Othman (RA), the third orthodox Caliph, an Arab mission was received by the Chinese Monarch Kao Tsung. Before this mission, two others were reported by different sources. At the time of the Prophet (PBUH), it is related that Saad bin Abi Waqqas was sent as an envoy to China. Other sources mention the name of Ibn Hamza (son of Hamza), the uncle of the Prophet (PBUH) as heading a delegation that called on the Emperor of China in AD 632. Between AD 651 and 798, more than thirty missions were sent by the Arabs to China. Likewise, Chinese missions visited the Muslim courts. Al-Masoudi records that Al-Mandi, the Abbaside Caliph (AD 775-785) had granted an audience to a Chinese delegation...On another occasion, the Chinese Emperor requested the help of the Arabs to suppress an internal revolt in AD 757. The request was complied with and Al-Mansur, the second Abbaside Caliph, sent twenty thousand soldiers to help the Chinese monarch. During the third Muslim century (ninth century AD), Arab records tell of voyages by Sulayman Al-Basri, known as Sulayman Al-Tajir (the merchant), describing China and the route to it that came to be known as the great Silk Route. Accompanying one of these missions to China was a Muslim judge (Qadi) who stayed there to render justice in conformity with principles of the Qur’an, and who was treated on the same footing as the judges of the country. According to the same source, Muslims entering the Chinese territories had established a colony on the borders of China that served as a link in the Arab-Chinese relations.”
Expounding further on the outcomes of the Arab-China relations, the author notes: “The Arabs brought to China, among other things, great knowledge of science and medicine. One of the first sciences to be accepted by the Chinese was astronomy. ‘Muslim mathematical science' was also, taught in China. Arab medicaments were so widely used by doctors in China that some still retain their original names. On the other hand, the Arabs in the mid-eighth century, learned from the Chinese the process of making paper. Before the end of the century, Baghdad constructed its first paper-mill. Through Spain and Italy in the twelfth century, paper manufacturing became known in Europe. If the Muslims were not the original inventors of the mariner's compass, they would have learned about it from their contact with China, but certainly they introduced it to the benefit of international trade. Sulayman Al-Tajir in his book Journey to China indicated that the Chinese were the first to adopt the use of fingerprints as signatures. Arab and Chinese vessels exchanged goods at Aden, on the Red Sea, or in the Persian Gulf, to be transported to other parts of the world. Through the Arab intermediary, China was in contact with Africa and Europe.”
Discussing the use of diplomatic jargon, the author observes: “The terms 'Ambassador' and 'Embassy' are translated into Arabic as `Safer' and `Safarah', respectively. Both words are derived from the root verb Safera, which originally meant to exert efforts in bringing peace and reconciliation between two quarrelling parties. The present concept of the mission of a safir is still to bring peace into relations with other nations or to endeavor to maintain the existing peaceful relations. The term `Safarah' could refer to the mission of the ambassador or the team accompanying him as well as to the residence of the mission. Some Arab historians refer to the mission that Abdul-Muttaleb, the grandfather of Prophet Muhammed (PBUH), took to the Abyssinian leader Abraha as Safarah. “
The author presents texts of various letters written by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) to kings and head of states. In the pre-Hijra period, the Prophet (PBUH) sent a letter to the Abyssinian Negus, inviting him to convert to Islam and recommending to him, his cousin Ja'far and the group of Muslims accompanying him. The letter reads: ''From Muhammed, the Apostle of God, to an-Najashy, King of the Abyssinians. I address to you the praise of God, the Sovereign Holy One, the Source of Peace, Guardian of Faith and Preserver of Safety, and attest that Isa (Jesus), son of Mariam is the Spirit of God and His Word that He passed to Mariam the Virgin, the Virtuous and Chaste, who bore Isa and gave birth to him out of the spirit of God that was blown into him as, before, He created Adam by his hand. I call you to believe in and obey Allah, the Unique, who has no partner, and to follow me and believe in what I am entrusted with, for I am the Apostle of God. I have dispatched to you my cousin Ja'far, accompanied with a number of Muslims. Upon their arrival, receive them with hospitality. I invite you and your troops to God. I have conveyed to you (the message) and advised you. Accept my advice. Peace be unto him who follows the right path."
Analyzing the characteristics and the format of the Prophet Muhammad’s (PBUH) diplomatic letters, the author notes: “The Language: The terminology and eloquence of these letters are not very different from those of the Qur’an. In a later stage it becomes easy to deduce that certain terms are no more in usage and that new expressions are inserted or came from common usage. The Style: The texts which are credited to be authentic among these letters are those which are precise, direct, forceful and exclusive. Any deviation from these principles subjects such correspondence to a legitimate doubt about its credibility. The Material: The subject matter of these letters was mainly to invite foreign leaders to adhere to Islam… “
Reflecting on Islamic teaching viz a viz protocols of conduct, the author states: “When Islam was teaching that men were brothers and people were created to live together, being descendants of the same father and mother and that no Arab had advantage over a non-Arab, or a race over another race, the Romans and Byzantines were classifying the peoples of the world into three categories—the civilized, the barbarians and the savages. It took Europe eleven to twelve centuries more to acknowledge these principles through the motto of the French Revolution. Yet, their applicability to other nations remains questionable. While the Muslim State was prevented, according to the teaching of the Qur’an, from- intervening in the internal affairs of another state with which it was bound by a treaty, even in order to aid the Muslim minority there, the present practice of the big powers interfering in the affairs of smaller states is often justified as providing support to certain minorities in those states. The Arabs observed certain principles regarding the conduct of war, i.e., the inviolability of peaceful individuals who did not participate in the acts of hostilities (children, women, invalids and monks); the protection of religious places and vital resources the sacredness of death and dead bodies; the fair treatment of people under occupation; the prisoners of war and hostages; and many other situations which were codified in the Geneva Convention fifty years ago.”
The author concludes the book by observing: “The contributions of the Arabs to international law and to diplomacy rules continued to be made by the successive Islamic States until the fall of the Ottoman Empire. It is true that the Muslim States did not follow strictly at all times the rules and principles of Islam, in the same way as it is true that big powers, at present, who laid down prevailing rules of international relations adhere to these riles upon convenience. Interaction between Muslim values and those of the other nations, and the Arab contribution to the formation of the principles of international relations, ceased to continue into modern history. Not only did they not participate in the legislation of international rules at times such as that when the victorious nations negotiated them in the framework of the League of Nations, but they were also subjected to rules imposed upon them under the mandated regime—a regime which differentiated between European countries liberated from the Ottoman rule and Arab countries. Of these, the League of Nations recognized the independence of the first but put the latter under the mandate of big power. The only standards were European values and traditions.”
Diplomacy and Diplomatic Practice in the Early Islamic Era by Yasin Istanbuli is an important book. Dr Istanbuli has eloquently chronicled the history of diplomacy and diplomatic practices in the early Islamic era. It is a valuable resource for general readers, students of history and international relations, and all stakeholders of diplomacy.
(Dr Ahmed S. Khan - dr.a.s.khan@ieee.org - is a Fulbright Specialist Scholar, 2017-2022)
