Warriors of God and Kingdom of Heaven
By Dr Syed Amir
Bethesda, MD
On July 4, 1187, the armies of Sultan Salah al-Din achieved a decisive victory over the European crusaders at the plains of Hattin, some sixty-five miles north of Jerusalem, near the Sea of Galilee. The battle has gone down in history as one of the most momentous battles of the Middle Ages, one that had far reaching consequences. Even after the lapse of nearly a millennium, the long shadow of the crusades continues to encroach upon the thoughts and perceptions of those in the West as well as Muslims.
Two recent events have led to a renewed interest in the crusades, the bloody, ferocious battles that lasted for two long centuries. The first was the publication several years ago of a highly acclaimed book, Warriors of God, by James Reston, an American author, and published by Doubleday. It became an instant success and was later translated into a number of languages. The other is a later occurrence, and was the release of Ridley Scott’s epic film “Kingdom of Heaven” for public viewing in May 2005 in the United States. The film, focusing on the period just before the third crusade (1189-92), provoked a stream of publicity and controversy in the media.
James Reston’s book is a serious work of history that narrates in fascinating detail the story of the first, second and third crusades, powerfully capturing the fervor and religious passions of the time, as well as the contrasting lifestyles of Europeans and Muslims as they battled for the possession of Jerusalem, holy to both Islam and Christianity. The book especially illuminates the character of Sultan Salah al-Din, the Kurdish Muslim hero, his humanity, generosity, and tolerance of people of other faiths. Many transcendent qualities of the Sultan’s character have traditionally been underplayed by Muslim historians, but they made him a legendary figure in European medieval literature, his name becoming synonymous with chivalry and nobility.
The story of the crusades started around the eleventh century AD, when, at the urging of Pope Urban II, four different armies of Europeans crusaders numbering around 40,000 besieged the weak Egyptian garrison of Jerusalem, supposedly to protect the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, and to restore it to Christian control. The city was lightly defended and was captured on June 7, 1099, in what has since become known as the first crusade. The inhabitants of the city suffered a terrible massacre at the hands of their conquerors; Muslims and Jews and even some Eastern Christians were mercilessly slaughtered, the city sacked, and holy places of worship, mosques and synagogues, desecrated. So was laid the foundation of what was to be named as the Latin Kingdom of Heaven in Jerusalem. The Kingdom, however, was to have only a brief lifespan.
Reston describes the state of disarray in which the Muslim world found itself at the time of the first crusade. The Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad was in its last throes, weakened and enfeebled by corruption and internal decay, the Fatimid rulers in Egypt and Seljuks in the east were engaged in an internecine struggle for dominance. Nonetheless, the success of the Seljuk Turks in capturing several small parts of the Palestine precipitated the second crusade (1147-49). The endeavor proved fruitless and the crusaders returned to Europe without making any gains.
Soon, the Middle East was to witness the birth of a star, the emergence of Sultan Salah al-Din as the most powerful leader. His greatest accomplishment was the unification of Egypt and Syria under a single rule. Having achieved this goal, the Sultan integrated the disorganized Muslim armies into a cohesive fighting force, capable of challenging the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. After winning a series of battles, the Sultan was ready to meet the main force of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The two armies eventually faced each other for a final showdown at Hattin.
The battle has remained a classic of military strategy. Led personally by the Sultan, the Muslim army was equipped with up-to-date weapons and guided by the best generals. The outcome was never in doubt and by the day’s end the Christian forces, demoralized and exhausted by thirst, were defeated, essentially terminating the grip of Europeans on the Holy Land. On October 2, 1187, the city of Jerusalem capitulated quickly to the Sultan’s forces. In preference to lavish palaces, the Sultan chose to stay in a small mosque in Jerusalem for one month to oversee the reconstruction of the city.
The success at the battle of Hattin and the capture of Jerusalem, brilliant and epoch-making achievements as they were, were surpassed in their allure by the supreme examples of humanity and generosity that the Sultan set following his victory. Tired, dirty and exhausted, Guy of Lusignan, King of Jerusalem and an implacable opponent, was presented to him; the Sultan offered him a seat next to himself and a bowl of cold rose sherbet to drink. His life was spared, and ultimately he was set free.
Following the capture of Jerusalem, a great debate ensued about what to do with the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. Some extremists at the court passionately argued for its destruction to remove the reason for Christians to threaten the city again. The Sultan listened patiently and then finally gave his decision. The holy church would not be harmed and would be returned to the Christians. He is quoted by Reston as saying, “To be a good Muslim is to venerate the site of all religions.”
As was the custom at the time, the Sultan was faced with the problem of what to do with thousands of prisoners of war, many with no means to pay a ransom for their freedom. He abhorred the business of trading human beings, and was looking for reasons to free them all. Thousands were set free on the appeal of his brother, Melek al-Adel. Then, all widows of dead or imprisoned soldiers were set free and lavished with gifts. Greek Orthodox Christians petitioned to remain in the city, and were granted the request as well as the custody of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. The Jews were allowed to return to the city in honor. Even after all this generosity, many prisoners were left with no money or place to go. Finally, the Sultan proclaimed that now was his turn to follow the example of his brother and earn some heavenly credit for a charitable deed. Many of the remaining captives - men, women and children - were freed on his behalf.
The capture of Jerusalem by Sultan Salah al-Din, brought a third wave of Christian warriors from Europe. They failed to recapture Jerusalem, and a peace treaty was signed in September 1192 by the Sultan and King Richard I of England. Soon afterwards, the Sultan returned to Damascus, welcomed amidst much jubilation. He loved the city, its citadel, its magnificent Omyaid mosque and its lush, beautiful gardens. However, he did not have much time left to enjoy a well-deserved rest. Years of hardship and perpetual warfare had worn him out. As he fell terminally ill, his thoughts turned to fulfilling his religious obligations. He inquired from his aides how many days of fasting he had missed due to wars. He wanted to perform his last Hajj. But there was no time left to complete any of these obligations. His supreme mission having been accomplished, Sultan Salah al-Din died on March 4, 1193, at the age of fifty-five. His total assets at the time of his death amounted to barely forty-seven dirhams, a sum not even enough to cover his funeral expenses.
Early in 2005, with interest in the crusades already aroused, the media in this country started to cover the controversy related to a new film “Kingdom of Heaven.” Costing $100 million and filmed in Morocco, the story was partly fiction and partly based on facts. That aside, the film was spectacular in its recreation of 12th-century medieval costumes, the splendor of vast vistas, the awesome scenes of mighty armies, shining armor, and magnificent horses. Much of the imagery was computer generated, but the overall effect was simply breathtaking. Although Sultan Salah al-Din, played by the Syrian actor, Ghassan Masoud, is portrayed as a wise and chivalrous leader, the hero of the film is a Christian knight from France, Balian of Ibelin, who promotes peaceful coexistence and interfaith harmony. Much of the controversy about the film was provoked by the depiction of the European crusaders as unsophisticated and culturally unrefined, compared to the Muslims of that era. Such protestations are easy to appreciate. In the present-day climate, when we are inundated with news of terrorist bombers killing innocent victims, it is difficult for most people to accept that at some period of history the Muslim world was, indeed, technologically as well as morally superior to Europe.
(Dr Syed Amir is a former Assistant Professor, Harvard Medical School, and a health science administrator, US National Institutes of Health)
